Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) was a Spanish conquistador best known for leading the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire and the colonization of large parts of Mexico. Born in Medellín, Spain, Cortés embarked on his journey to the New World in 1504, initially serving as a soldier in Hispaniola and Cuba. In 1519, he led a small force of Spanish soldiers and allied indigenous warriors into the Aztec Empire. Through a combination of military prowess, strategic alliances with discontented native groups, and the exploitation of internal divisions within the empire, Cortés successfully captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in 1521. His conquest paved the way for Spanish dominance in the Americas and the vast wealth that came from the New World. While celebrated for his achievements in Spain, Cortés is also remembered for the brutal tactics used against the indigenous population, making his legacy deeply complex and contested.
Early Life and Background
Hernán Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellín, Spain, a small town in the province of Extremadura. His family belonged to the lower nobility, with his father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, being a minor noble, and his mother, Catalina Pizarro Altamirano, of noble lineage. Despite his family’s noble status, they were not wealthy, and Cortés grew up in relatively modest circumstances. His early life was marked by a mix of ambition and restlessness, traits that would later define his career as a conquistador.
Cortés was an intelligent and curious child, traits that his parents recognized and sought to cultivate. At the age of 14, he was sent to the University of Salamanca, one of the oldest and most prestigious universities in Europe, to study law. However, young Hernán found the academic life stifling and unsuited to his adventurous spirit. After two years, he abandoned his studies and returned home, much to the disappointment of his parents. Cortés’s brief academic stint, however, provided him with a foundational knowledge of Latin, law, and rhetoric, skills that would later serve him well in his negotiations and diplomatic efforts during his conquests.
The late 15th century was a period of great exploration and expansion for Spain. The tales of Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the New World and the opportunities for wealth and glory in the unknown lands across the Atlantic captivated many young Spaniards, including Cortés. By the time he was in his early twenties, Cortés had decided to seek his fortune in the New World, a decision that set him on a path toward becoming one of history’s most famous and controversial figures.
In 1504, at the age of 19, Cortés embarked on a voyage to the Spanish colony of Hispaniola, now the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The journey across the Atlantic was perilous, with the constant threat of storms, shipwrecks, and piracy. However, Cortés arrived safely in Hispaniola, where he began his life as a colonist. He was given a small tract of land and some indigenous laborers, and he quickly established himself as a planter. Although this life provided him with a stable income, it was far from the adventure and glory he sought.
During his time in Hispaniola, Cortés gained valuable experience in colonial administration and military matters. He participated in several expeditions to suppress indigenous uprisings, honing his skills as a soldier and leader. However, his ambition continued to drive him toward greater challenges. In 1511, Cortés joined an expedition led by Diego Velázquez to conquer the island of Cuba. The conquest was relatively swift, and Cortés’s role in the campaign earned him favor with Velázquez, who became the governor of Cuba.
Cortés’s time in Cuba was marked by his growing influence and wealth. He was appointed as the mayor of Santiago, the island’s capital, and received large grants of land and indigenous laborers. However, his ambition remained unfulfilled. He had heard rumors of rich and powerful civilizations on the mainland, and he was determined to seek them out. His opportunity came in 1518 when Velázquez appointed him to lead an expedition to explore the Yucatán Peninsula, an assignment that would eventually lead to the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
The Voyage to the New World and Initial Expeditions
In 1518, Hernán Cortés received the commission he had long sought: to lead an expedition to explore the Yucatán Peninsula, a region rumored to be rich in gold and inhabited by advanced civilizations. The expedition was initially planned and authorized by Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, who trusted Cortés due to his experience and loyalty. However, as Cortés began preparations, Velázquez grew suspicious of Cortés’s ambitions and attempted to revoke the commission. Cortés, realizing that his opportunity was slipping away, hastily gathered his fleet and set sail before Velázquez could stop him.
Cortés’s fleet consisted of 11 ships, carrying approximately 600 men, including soldiers, sailors, and some indigenous and African slaves. Among the ranks were also several notaries and clergy, reflecting the expedition’s dual purpose of conquest and conversion of the indigenous people to Christianity. Cortés was well-prepared, bringing with him a variety of weapons, horses, and artillery, which would later prove crucial in his encounters with the indigenous populations.
The fleet first made landfall on the island of Cozumel in February 1519. Here, Cortés encountered the local Maya population, who were initially wary of the newcomers. However, through a combination of diplomacy and intimidation, Cortés was able to secure provisions and guides from the islanders. It was also in Cozumel that Cortés heard of Spanish castaways who had been shipwrecked years earlier and were living among the Maya on the mainland. Cortés sent a rescue party, and two survivors, Jerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero, were found. Aguilar, who had learned the local Maya language, joined Cortés as an interpreter, a role that would prove invaluable in the months to come.
Cortés then continued along the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, making contact with various Maya communities. His encounters were often marked by violence, as many of the Maya were hostile to the Spanish intruders. However, Cortés’s forces, equipped with superior weaponry and tactics, were able to subdue these communities, securing valuable information and supplies.
One of the most significant moments of the early expedition occurred when Cortés arrived in Tabasco, where he encountered the powerful indigenous confederation of the Chontal Maya. After a brief but fierce battle, the Maya were defeated, and they offered Cortés a tribute of gold, food, and slaves. Among the slaves was a woman named Malintzin, later known as La Malinche, who spoke both Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) and Maya. Recognizing her linguistic skills, Cortés took Malintzin as an interpreter and advisor. Her knowledge of the local cultures and languages made her an indispensable asset to the expedition.
With Malintzin and Aguilar by his side, Cortés continued his journey along the coast, eventually arriving at the site of present-day Veracruz. Here, he founded the settlement of La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, the first Spanish colony on the mainland of Mexico. This settlement was strategically important, as it provided Cortés with a base of operations and a legal pretext to break away from Velázquez’s authority. To secure his position further, Cortés established a municipal council and had himself elected as its captain-general, effectively placing the expedition under his own control rather than Velázquez’s.
Cortés then made the bold decision to scuttle his ships, a move designed to prevent any of his men from deserting and to ensure that the only path forward was into the interior of the continent. This dramatic gesture solidified his leadership and the commitment of his men to the mission ahead. With his forces now fully committed, Cortés turned his attention to the Aztec Empire, which he had heard about from his interpreters and local informants. The stage was set for one of the most dramatic and consequential encounters in history.
The March to Tenochtitlán and the Encounter with Montezuma
With the establishment of Veracruz and the loyalty of his men secured, Hernán Cortés set out on the arduous journey toward the heart of the Aztec Empire. The march inland began in August 1519, with a force of approximately 500 soldiers, 15 horsemen, and several hundred indigenous allies from the coastal regions who had joined Cortés in hopes of overthrowing the oppressive Aztec rulers. The expedition also included interpreters Jerónimo de Aguilar and Malintzin, whose language skills would be crucial in navigating the complex political landscape of central Mexico.
As the expedition advanced, Cortés and his men encountered a series of indigenous polities, each with its own relationship to the Aztec Empire. Some of these groups, such as the Totonacs of Cempoala, were eager to ally with the Spanish in their fight against the Aztecs, who demanded heavy tribute and frequently sacrificed captives to their gods. The Totonacs provided Cortés with additional warriors and supplies, further strengthening his force.
Cortés’s next major encounter was with the Tlaxcalans, a fierce and independent confederation of city-states that had long resisted Aztec domination. The Tlaxcalans initially viewed the Spanish as enemies and attacked them in a series of brutal battles. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Cortés’s forces, with their superior weapons and tactics, managed to hold their ground. After several days of fighting, the Tlaxcalans, impressed by the Spanish resilience and perhaps sensing an opportunity to weaken the Aztecs, proposed an alliance with Cortés. This alliance would prove to be one of the most significant of the entire campaign, as the Tlaxcalans provided Cortés with thousands of warriors and valuable intelligence about the Aztec Empire.
With his new allies, Cortés continued his march toward Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec Empire. Along the way, he made a brief stop in the city of Cholula, one of the largest and most sacred cities in Mesoamerica. The Cholulans, who were closely allied with the Aztecs, welcomed Cortés with apparent hospitality. However, Cortés soon received reports from Malintzin and other informants that the Cholulans were planning an ambush against the Spanish. In response, Cortés preemptively attacked the city, resulting in a massacre of thousands of Cholulans. This brutal display of force served as a warning to other indigenous groups of the consequences of opposing the Spanish.
On November 8, 1519, Hernán Cortés and his forces finally arrived at the gates of Tenochtitlán, the magnificent capital of the Aztec Empire. The city, built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, was connected to the mainland by a series of causeways and bridges. Its size, architectural grandeur, and vibrant markets left the Spanish awestruck. Cortés himself marveled at the city’s beauty and the sophistication of Aztec society, which far surpassed anything the Spanish had encountered in the New World.
As Cortés and his men entered the city, they were met by Emperor Montezuma II, who welcomed them with great ceremony. Montezuma, believing Cortés to be either a representative of a god or a powerful foreign ruler, offered lavish gifts of gold, silver, and other treasures. The encounter between Cortés and Montezuma was a momentous occasion, symbolizing the meeting of two vastly different worlds. Despite the apparent cordiality, both men were cautious and uncertain about the other’s intentions.
Cortés was acutely aware of the precariousness of his position. He was deep in the heart of a powerful empire, surrounded by thousands of potential enemies, and his small force of Spaniards and indigenous allies was vastly outnumbered. However, Cortés’s audacity and skill as a leader came to the fore. He sought to exploit the internal divisions within the Aztec Empire and the uncertainty that Montezuma felt about the Spaniards.
Over the next several weeks, Cortés and his men were housed in one of the palaces in Tenochtitlán, where they were treated as honored guests. However, tensions quickly rose as the Spanish began to impose their will on the Aztecs. Cortés demanded that Montezuma renounce his pagan gods and accept Christianity, a demand that was met with resistance. The Spaniards also discovered vast amounts of gold and silver in the city, further fueling their desire to take control of the empire.
Recognizing the growing tension and the potential for an uprising, Cortés took the audacious step of seizing Montezuma as a hostage. He forced the emperor to swear allegiance to the Spanish crown and to provide a massive ransom in gold. Despite being a prisoner, Montezuma continued to act as the de facto ruler of the Aztec Empire, issuing orders in the name of Cortés. This move effectively paralyzed the Aztec leadership, as they were reluctant to act against their own emperor.
However, the situation in Tenochtitlán was growing increasingly unstable. The presence of the Spanish and their demands for tribute caused resentment among the Aztec nobility and the population at large. Additionally, the arrival of a Spanish expedition sent by Diego Velázquez to arrest Cortés further complicated matters. Cortés, ever the strategist, left Tenochtitlán to deal with this new threat, leaving his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, in charge of the city.
During Cortés’s absence, Alvarado ordered a massacre of Aztec nobles during a religious festival, an act that ignited a full-scale rebellion in the city. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán with reinforcements, he found the city in open revolt, and the Spanish forces were besieged in their quarters. In a desperate bid to quell the uprising, Cortés had Montezuma address his people from the palace walls, but the emperor was met with a barrage of stones and arrows, mortally wounding him. Montezuma’s death marked the end of his reign and the beginning of the final collapse of the Aztec Empire.
Realizing that their position in the city was untenable, Cortés and his men attempted to escape Tenochtitlán under the cover of night on June 30, 1520, an event known as “La Noche Triste” (The Night of Sorrows). The escape turned into a disaster as the Spaniards were discovered by the Aztecs while crossing one of the causeways. In the ensuing battle, many of Cortés’s men were killed, and much of the treasure they had accumulated was lost in the lake. Cortés himself narrowly escaped with his life.
The Siege of Tenochtitlán and the Fall of the Aztec Empire
After the devastating retreat from Tenochtitlán, Hernán Cortés regrouped his surviving forces and retreated to Tlaxcala, where he sought refuge among his allies. Despite the heavy losses and the demoralizing defeat, Cortés was determined to continue his campaign against the Aztecs. He spent several months in Tlaxcala rebuilding his army, gathering supplies, and securing additional indigenous allies who were eager to see the end of Aztec rule.
During this time, smallpox, a disease brought by the Spanish, began to ravage the indigenous populations of central Mexico. The epidemic spread rapidly and had a devastating impact on the Aztecs, who had no immunity to the disease. The smallpox outbreak significantly weakened the Aztec forces and disrupted their ability to resist the Spanish. The epidemic also claimed the life of Cuitláhuac, Montezuma’s successor, further destabilizing the Aztec leadership.
In May 1521, after months of preparation, Cortés launched a full-scale siege of Tenochtitlán. His forces now numbered several thousand, bolstered by thousands of indigenous warriors from Tlaxcala and other allied city-states. Cortés also had the advantage of 13 brigantines, small warships that he had constructed to control the waters of Lake Texcoco and cut off the city’s supplies. The siege was a brutal and prolonged affair, lasting nearly three months.
The Spanish and their allies systematically destroyed the causeways and bridges connecting Tenochtitlán to the mainland, isolating the city and cutting off food and water supplies. Cortés ordered his forces to attack the city from multiple directions, slowly advancing block by block and dismantling the Aztec defenses. The fighting was fierce and often hand-to-hand, as the Aztecs, under the leadership of their new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, mounted a desperate defense of their capital.
As the siege dragged on, the situation inside Tenochtitlán became increasingly dire. The city’s inhabitants suffered from starvation, disease, and the relentless attacks of the Spanish and their allies. The once-great city was reduced to ruins, its streets filled with the dead and dying. Despite the horrific conditions, the Aztecs continued to resist, refusing to surrender their city to the invaders.
On August 13, 1521, after weeks of relentless assault, the Spanish forces finally captured Cuauhtémoc as he attempted to flee the city. With the capture of their emperor, the remaining Aztec defenders surrendered, and the long and bloody siege came to an end. Tenochtitlán, the center of the Aztec Empire, lay in ruins, its temples destroyed, its people decimated.
The fall of Tenochtitlán marked the end of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico. Cortés and his men entered the city, now a shadow of its former self, and began the process of consolidating their control over the region. The Spanish dismantled the remnants of the Aztec government and religion, replacing them with their own institutions and the imposition of Christianity. Cortés ordered the construction of a new Spanish city, Mexico City, on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, which would become the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
The conquest of the Aztec Empire was a monumental achievement for Hernán Cortés and his men, but it came at a tremendous cost. The campaign had resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of indigenous people, the destruction of one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas, and the spread of diseases that would continue to devastate the indigenous populations for years to come. For Cortés, the conquest brought immense wealth and power, but it also marked the beginning of a complex and often troubled legacy.
Governance of New Spain and Later Expeditions
Following the fall of Tenochtitlán, Hernán Cortés faced the enormous task of governing and consolidating the vast territories that now constituted New Spain. As the de facto ruler of Mexico, Cortés set about establishing a colonial administration that would secure Spanish control over the newly conquered lands and facilitate the extraction of wealth, particularly gold and silver, which had been one of the primary motivations for the conquest.
Cortés distributed land and indigenous laborers to his men as rewards for their service, a system known as encomienda. The encomienda system allowed Spanish settlers to collect tribute from the indigenous populations and exploit their labor, often under harsh and brutal conditions. This system was justified by the Spanish crown as a means of Christianizing the indigenous people, but in practice, it led to significant abuses and exploitation.
As the governor of New Spain, Cortés also faced the challenge of rebuilding Tenochtitlán, now renamed Mexico City, which would serve as the capital of the new colony. He oversaw the construction of new buildings, churches, and infrastructure, transforming the ruined Aztec capital into a Spanish colonial city. Mexico City quickly became the administrative, economic, and cultural center of New Spain, attracting settlers, missionaries, and adventurers from Europe.
Despite his achievements, Cortés’s position in New Spain was far from secure. His ruthless methods and the immense power he wielded made him many enemies, both in the colony and back in Spain. Reports of his actions, including the massacre of indigenous people and the harsh treatment of his rivals, reached the Spanish crown, leading to increasing scrutiny of his governance. In 1524, King Charles I of Spain sent a royal commission to investigate Cortés’s administration and to curb his power.
To defend his position and secure his legacy, Cortés embarked on a series of expeditions to expand Spanish territories further and to search for new sources of wealth. One of the most notable expeditions was to Honduras in 1524-1525. Cortés hoped to quell a rebellion by a former lieutenant, Cristóbal de Olid, who had declared himself independent of New Spain. The expedition was fraught with difficulties, including harsh terrain, disease, and dwindling supplies. Despite these challenges, Cortés managed to suppress the rebellion and reassert his authority over the region. However, the venture did little to improve his standing with the Spanish crown.
While Cortés was away on the Honduras expedition, his enemies in New Spain, led by the royal commissioner Nuño de Guzmán, took advantage of his absence to undermine his authority. Guzmán accused Cortés of various crimes, including treason, and seized some of his properties. Upon his return to Mexico in 1526, Cortés found his political situation precarious, and his power significantly diminished. To restore his reputation and secure his future, Cortés decided to return to Spain to plead his case before the king.
In 1528, Hernán Cortés arrived in Spain, where he was received by King Charles I. The king, recognizing Cortés’s achievements but wary of his ambitions, treated him with respect but refused to restore him to his former position of governor. Instead, Cortés was granted the title of “Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca,” along with a large estate in Mexico, which provided him with substantial wealth and status. However, the king appointed a viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, to govern New Spain, effectively sidelining Cortés from political power.
Despite this setback, Cortés continued to pursue his interests in the New World. In the early 1530s, he financed and led several expeditions along the western coast of Mexico and into the Pacific Ocean, hoping to find new lands and routes for exploration. These expeditions, including one to Baja California, were largely unsuccessful in terms of discovering new wealth or territories. Nevertheless, they demonstrated Cortés’s enduring ambition and his desire to expand Spanish influence in the Americas.
As the years passed, Cortés’s influence continued to wane. The encomienda system he had established in New Spain faced increasing criticism, both from missionaries who decried the treatment of indigenous people and from Spanish officials who saw it as a threat to royal authority. Cortés himself became embroiled in legal disputes over his rights to the lands and titles he had been granted. He spent much of his later years defending his actions and seeking recognition and compensation for his contributions to the Spanish Empire.
In 1540, Cortés returned to Spain for the final time, hoping to secure more honors and recognition from the crown. However, his pleas largely fell on deaf ears. King Charles I, preoccupied with other matters, granted Cortés an audience but offered little in the way of tangible rewards. Disillusioned and frustrated, Cortés retired to his estate in Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Seville. Although he was one of the wealthiest men in Spain, Cortés felt marginalized and unappreciated, a stark contrast to the glory and power he had once wielded in the New World.
Final Years and Legacy
In his final years, Hernán Cortés lived as a wealthy but increasingly embittered man, haunted by the memory of his past achievements and the lack of recognition he felt he deserved. Despite his immense contributions to the Spanish Empire, including the conquest of the Aztec Empire and the establishment of New Spain, Cortés struggled with feelings of neglect and resentment towards the Spanish crown, which he believed had unjustly sidelined him.
During his retirement, Cortés focused on managing his vast estates, including those in Mexico. He corresponded with friends and allies, often expressing his frustration with the way his achievements had been overshadowed by political rivals and bureaucrats. Cortés also became involved in several legal battles to defend his rights to the lands and titles he had been granted. These disputes consumed much of his time and energy in his later years, further fueling his sense of disillusionment.
In an effort to secure his legacy, Cortés wrote letters and memoirs, including the famous “Cartas de Relación,” which he addressed to King Charles I. In these letters, Cortés detailed his exploits in the New World, emphasizing the magnitude of his achievements and the sacrifices he had made for the Spanish crown. He sought to remind the king of the wealth and territories he had brought to Spain, as well as the Christianization of vast indigenous populations. However, despite his efforts, Cortés received little acknowledgment or reward from the crown.
In 1541, Cortés joined an expedition led by Charles I to Algiers, hoping to regain favor with the king by participating in a military campaign. However, the expedition was a failure, and Cortés returned to Spain without achieving his goal. This final military venture marked the end of Cortés’s active involvement in exploration and conquest. He spent the remaining years of his life in relative obscurity, far from the glory and excitement that had characterized his earlier years.
On December 2, 1547, Hernán Cortés died at the age of 62 in Castilleja de la Cuesta. His death marked the end of an extraordinary life, one that had seen him rise from a relatively obscure background to become one of the most famous and controversial figures in history. Despite his many accomplishments, Cortés’s later years were marked by a profound sense of disappointment and a feeling that he had been unjustly treated by the very empire he had helped to expand.
The legacy of Hernán Cortés is a complex and often contentious one. To some, he is a heroic figure, a brilliant military strategist who achieved the impossible by conquering the powerful Aztec Empire with a small force of soldiers and indigenous allies. His actions led to the establishment of New Spain, which would become a cornerstone of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. Cortés’s conquests also had a profound impact on world history, contributing to the spread of European culture, religion, and influence across the globe.
However, Cortés’s legacy is also marked by the darker aspects of his conquests. The destruction of the Aztec Empire led to the deaths of tens of thousands of indigenous people, both in battle and through the spread of European diseases. The exploitation and enslavement of indigenous populations under the encomienda system caused immense suffering and set a precedent for the brutal treatment of indigenous people throughout the Americas. Cortés’s actions have been criticized for their ruthlessness and the lasting impact they had on the native cultures and societies of Mexico.
In modern times, Hernán Cortés is viewed as a figure of both admiration and condemnation. In Mexico, he is often seen as a symbol of the colonial oppression and the violence that accompanied the Spanish conquest. The destruction of Tenochtitlán and the fall of the Aztec Empire are remembered as tragic events in Mexican history, and Cortés is frequently portrayed as the villain in this narrative. Yet, his impact on the course of history cannot be denied, and his life continues to be the subject of extensive study, debate, and fascination.
Cortés’s legacy also extends to the cultural and linguistic changes that followed the Spanish conquest. The introduction of the Spanish language, Catholicism, and European customs to the indigenous populations of Mexico has had a lasting influence on the country’s culture and identity. The blending of Spanish and indigenous traditions gave rise to a unique mestizo culture that defines much of modern Mexico. Cortés’s role in this cultural transformation is a testament to the profound and lasting effects of the conquest on the history of the Americas.